• Ovarian cancer often presents with subtle pelvic or abdominal symptoms, which can lead to a late-stage diagnosis.
• It is crucial to understand tumor subtypes, as they behave differently and may respond differently to various treatments.
• There is no routine screening for average-risk people; TVUS and CA-125 are used to evaluate symptoms or higher risk, with diagnosis confirmed by biopsy when needed.
• Tumor characteristics, overall health status, and cancer stage significantly affect prognosis.
• Clinical trials are ongoing to investigate novel treatments that could enhance long-term results.

What Is Ovarian Cancer?

Ovarian cancer involves abnormal cell growth in ovarian tissue that can form tumors and spread to nearby tissues, affecting normal ovarian function. At later stages, abnormal cells may invade adjacent tissues and spread to distant body parts through the lymph nodes or blood. One of the major difficulties of recognizing ovarian cancer is that it has a predilection for progressing insidiously, often without distinct and early symptoms. Clinical attention is often sought only when symptoms such as persistent abdominal bloating, constant pelvic pressure, or unexplained abdominal swelling occur. This highlights the need for vigilance and careful symptom assessment.

Types of Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer types are grouped according to the tumor’s cell of origin, with each subtype differing in prevalence, clinical course, and treatment strategy.

Epithelial Ovarian Cancer

The majority of ovarian cancers fall into this subtype. This cancer starts in the epithelial cells that form the ovary’s outer layer. Early symptoms can be mild or nonspecific, so many cases are detected later. Standard care typically includes cytoreductive surgery followed by chemotherapy. Research is ongoing into targeted treatments for patients with certain genetic features.

Germ Cell Ovarian Cancer

This subtype, more common in adolescents and young women, originates from egg-producing cells and typically responds well to treatment. Fertility-preserving surgery may be considered in early stages, and chemotherapy is often highly effective, though long-term follow-up remains necessary.

Sex Cord–Stromal Ovarian Cancer

These tumors arise from hormone-producing ovarian tissues and may cause hormonal symptoms such as irregular menstrual bleeding. The primary approach is surgical removal, although hormone therapy may be appropriate for select individuals.

Ovarian Cancer Signs, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

Many ovarian cancer symptoms resemble those of benign gastrointestinal or gynecologic conditions, which can delay recognition. Tumors are often not noticeable without imaging; some people may feel a pelvic or abdominal mass, but many do not. The following are commonly reported symptoms:

• Persistent bloating or swelling of the abdomen
• Pelvic or abdominal pain; early fullness after meals
• Increased frequency or urgency of urination
• Changes in bowel habits
• Fatigue or unexplained weight changes

Clinical assessment is essential when these symptoms persist for several weeks or show progression.

For people at average risk, there is no widely recommended routine screening test for ovarian cancer at this time. Diagnosis relies on a combination of clinical evaluation and diagnostic testing, including transvaginal ultrasound, CT or MRI imaging, and blood markers such as CA-125. These tools support risk assessment but are not definitive on their own. A conclusive diagnosis requires histopathological confirmation through biopsy or surgical evaluation. Individuals experiencing unexplained or persistent pelvic symptoms are advised to seek medical attention promptly for an appropriate diagnostic workup.

Ovarian Cancer Stages

Ovarian cancer staging describes the anatomical extent of the disease at the time of diagnosis and serves as a central framework for determining prognosis and guiding treatment planning. Both local tumor growth and the existence of regional or distant spread are reflected in the staging system.

• Stage I: Cancer is confined to one or both ovaries.
• Stage II: The tumor has spread within the pelvis to organs like the uterus or fallopian tubes.
• Stage III: Cancer has extended to nearby lymph nodes or the abdominal lining.
• Stage IV: The cancer has spread to distant sites outside the abdomen (distant metastasis), such as the lungs/pleura or liver tissue.

All things considered, staging is crucial for determining survival rates, choosing the best medical and surgical procedures, and comparing treatment outcomes between clinical trials. The long-term outlook for ovarian cancer is heavily influenced by detection at an early stage.

Survival Rate, Prognosis, and Risk Factors of Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer outcomes are shaped by a combination of disease stage at diagnosis and underlying biological and demographic risk factors. Survival outcomes are shaped mainly by when the disease is detected and how far it has progressed. American Cancer Society, Ovarian Cancer Survival Rates ( 2015–2021):

SEER summary stage (invasive epithelial ovarian cancer)	5-year relative survival rate
Localized	92%
Regional	71%
Distant	32%

These figures are population-level estimates and cannot predict an individual outcome. Prognosis varies by cancer type, stage at diagnosis, age/overall health, and response to treatment (American Cancer Society, 2025).

The stage at which ovarian cancer is diagnosed is closely linked to a range of genetic, hormonal, and age-related risk factors. Inherited genetic mutations, particularly BRCA1 and BRCA2, substantially increase lifetime risk; outcomes can vary depending on tumor subtype and response to treatment rather than being uniformly more aggressive. A positive family history of ovarian, breast, or colorectal cancer is associated with higher risk, consistent with shared inherited cancer mechanisms. Age is another key determinant, with incidence rising significantly after menopause. In addition, reproductive and hormonal factors—such as late childbearing or the use of certain hormone therapies—may influence risk.

While these risk factors make ovarian cancer more likely, they do not guarantee that someone will develop the disease. Rather, their interaction affects both the probability of diagnosis at an advanced stage and overall prognosis, thereby linking risk factors directly to survival outcomes (ACS, 2024).

Prevention for Ovarian Cancer

Although it is impossible to completely prevent ovarian cancer, the following risk-reduction strategies may be helpful:

• Regular gynecologic exams: These visits support early clinical evaluation by allowing healthcare providers to review symptoms, assess risk factors, and identify worrisome changes that may require further investigation, even though they do not directly screen for ovarian cancer.
• Genetic counseling: This is especially critical for individuals with a strong familial history of ovarian cancer or related malignancies. Genetic counseling can help clarify inherited risk, guide decisions about closer monitoring, and inform discussions about preventive options with specialists.
• Lifestyle choices: Adopting healthy habits such as eating a balanced diet, avoiding smoking, and maintaining a healthy body weight may help lower overall cancer risk and support general health, which is beneficial during long-term disease prevention efforts.

While these approaches may reduce risk and promote earlier awareness, they cannot fully eliminate the possibility of developing ovarian cancer, making ongoing medical follow-up and symptom awareness essential.

Treatment for Ovarian Cancer

Treatment for ovarian cancer includes several approaches used alone or in combination based on disease stage and patient factors.

Surgery

The initial approach is generally surgical, aiming for the greatest safe reduction of tumor burden. Procedures may involve removing the uterus, ovaries, or damaged tissues, depending on the circumstances.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy can be given either before surgery to lessen the tumor burden or after surgery to target cancer cells that are still present. The tumor subtype affects the response.

Radiation Treatment

Although it is not frequently used for ovarian cancer, radiation therapy may be taken into consideration in certain situations for focused treatment or symptom control.

Targeted Therapy

Targeted drugs are used for tumors with specific molecular characteristics. Some therapies are FDA-approved for certain genetic profiles, offering additional treatment options for eligible patients.

Alternative Treatments for Ovarian Cancer

These therapies may improve well-being, but they cannot replace medical treatment and should be discussed with a healthcare provider to ensure safe use.

Complications of Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer and its treatment may lead to a range of complications that can affect physical comfort and overall quality of life:

• Ascites: The accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, which can cause abdominal swelling, discomfort, and difficulty breathing, especially in advanced disease.
• Intestinal obstruction: This complication occurs more frequently in later stages of ovarian cancer and may lead to abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty passing stool.
• Hormonal imbalances: Particularly associated with stromal tumors, hormonal changes can affect menstrual patterns, metabolism, and overall endocrine function.
• Cancer-related fatigue: A common and often persistent complication during and after treatment, characterized by ongoing tiredness that may not improve with rest and can interfere with daily activities.

Ovarian Cancer Clinical Trials and Living With the Disease

By assessing novel medications, targeted therapies, and treatment combinations under strict regulatory guidelines, clinical trials are essential to the advancement of ovarian cancer treatment. Risks and benefits differ from one study to another, but enrollment may offer cutting-edge treatment options and help move research forward.

Comprehensive care approaches, frequent follow-up visits, symptom management, and peer support networks can help manage the physical, emotional, and practical challenges that come with living with ovarian cancer.

Sources

• American Cancer Society (ACS). Ovarian Cancer Survival Rates, 2024.
• World Health Organization (WHO). Global Cancer Observatory (GLOBOCAN), 2023.
• National Cancer Institute (NCI). Ovarian Cancer Treatment Overview.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Gynecologic Cancers Data.